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Wet n' Wild: Be Prepared for Dangers Associated with Swiftwater Rescues
By Greg Jakubowski
FireRescue Magazine
April showers may bring beautiful May flowers, but they can also create treacherous creek and river conditions, along with flash floods that generate emergency calls. These calls can range from nothing more than someone stuck in a vehicle that has become surrounded by relatively calm water to multiple people who have driven their vehicles into a flash-flooded area and are now unable to fight the fast-moving current to escape. What’s worse, the call could be for someone who has been swept downstream by a creek, wash or river, making it harder to establish a single location to prepare for the rescue.
And it’s not only heavy rains and severe storms that create these dangerous situations. In December 2008 a major water main break created instant chaos in Montgomery County, Md. (For a detailed account of the rescue, see the sidebar “A Success Story” in the May issue of FireRescue) What does this mean for you? Any fire department in the country could be called to a water rescue—so be prepared!
This article will focus on general first responder water rescue and flash flooding. It will not delve into ocean rescue situations, which can require somewhat different skills and equipment.
The Dangers of Water
Moving water is a very powerful force that is easily underestimated, even by firefighters. Water weighs 62.4 lbs. per cubic foot and typically flows downstream at 6 to 12 mph. Six inches of water can sweep a person off their feet; only 1–2 feet of water can cost lives; and 2 feet of water can float a car.
When a vehicle stalls in the water, the water’s momentum is transferred to the car. For each foot the water rises, 500 lbs. of lateral force is applied to the car. Now factor in buoyancy. According to the U.S. National Weather Service Office of Climate, Water and Weather Services, for each foot the water rises up the side of the car, the car displaces 1,500 lbs. of water. In effect, the car weighs 1,500 lbs. less for each foot the water rises. The results can be disastrous.
According to the National Weather Service, in June 1990, in Shadyside, Ohio, 4 inches of rain in less than 2 hours produced a 30-foot-high wall of water that ultimately killed 26 people and caused $6–8 million in damage. In June 2001, flooding from Tropical Storm Allison killed 22 people and caused more than $5 billion in damage in the Houston area.
Other dangers: In many cases, flood waters are extremely cold, even when the weather is warm or hot.
Swift-moving flood waters can be deceiving, with water on the top moving slowly and rapid undercurrents that can trip up and carry away unprepared rescuers. These same undercurrents can wash away roadways, providing hidden traps for personnel and apparatus attempting to enter the area for rescues.
Swiftwater incidents may seem relatively routine for some departments, especially those located on or near a body of water. However, for many other departments, these situations can prove quite challenging. Every fire department must have procedures in place to provide for the prompt rescue of individuals trapped in high-water or fast-moving water situations, all while ensuring safety for the rescuers.
Do Your Homework
You must have the proper procedures, training and equipment to handle any type of swiftwater incident.
Consider all your potential resources, including boats, special rescue equipment (ropes, rope guns, ladders, survival suits, etc.), dive/water rescue units, EMS units and helicopters that have rescue capabilities. Get familiar with specialized resources, their capabilities and availability. Even if divers/boats are available, you need to know if they can operate in swiftwater situations or if their use is limited to calm water conditions. Additionally, can aerial apparatus operate at low or declined angles, and how much weight can they support at that angle?
Rescue personnel should wear Type I PDFs, which are designed to keep personnel afloat, even when unconscious, in rough water situations. You must understand the limitations of other types of PFDs.
Research the types of personal floatation devices (PFDs) and cold-water suits you need prior to purchase. Cold water suits should be worn by personnel operating in the water. They keep personnel afloat and protect against hypothermia.
Are your firefighters prepared to operate with PFDs and not their turnout gear near water? If not, you’ll need to start training on how to operate under these conditions.
Tip: You can store water rescue gear in bags that are kept at the station and placed on the apparatus when flooding conditions threaten.
Size-Up
Like all calls, incident size-up begins at dispatch. All responding personnel must monitor radio communications and weather conditions to get a solid understanding of the situation and the risks involved in order to prevent any additional individuals from becoming entrapped in the high or fast-moving water.
It’s important to triage requests for assistance during flooding conditions. There may be people “stuck” in disabled vehicles in ankle-deep water that’s barely moving, as well as people who are trapped in a fast current and moving swiftly downstream. Clearly, the latter case deserves priority—and some quick thinking.
The planning officer should track changing weather conditions to determine if the situation will improve or deteriorate. If the victim is in a stable position and uninjured, and the water level is projected to recede, it might be simpler and safer to have them stay in place until the flooding subsides, all while maintaining contact and providing moral support. If the victim’s condition is unstable and/or the water is projected to rise, the need for rescue may be imminent. Note: If the victim shows signs of hypothermia or another medical condition, make the rescue as soon as possible.
Another factor to consider: unit placement. Units should be positioned as close to the scene as possible without actually entering the water or putting themselves at risk. Determine if rescuers can be positioned on both banks on either side of the incident as well as downstream—an ideal position. Note: Don’t forget to consider mutual aid or additional assistance.
Finally, the incident commander will need to make a decision as to which method of extricating is best for the victim, while minimizing risk to the rescuers? It may be via helicopter or by personnel in a boat. Putting rescuers in the water should be the last option considered.
Water-Rescue Principles
There are four principles of water rescue: reach, throw, row and go—and they usually occur in that order.
Use long, handled tools, such as pike poles, to try to reach victims. Ensure you have ropes with life rings or other floating devices that can be thrown to victims. Even air-filled objects, such as footballs or soccer balls, can be thrown to victims so they have something to hold onto while in the water. You’ll also want rope available to tie-off any rescuer entering the water so they can be retrieved quickly. Note: Rescuers should carry a knife to be able to quickly cut themselves free of any entanglement that threatens them.
You can push, motor or row boats to victims if necessary, but rescuers entering the water, even in boats, should only go when properly protected with head and foot protection and flotation gear. If survival or flotation suits are available, wear them! Also ensure that your boots are tied tightly to reduce the amount of water, hydrocarbons, chemicals or other hazards that can get in.
Boats can be extremely dangerous in fast water rescues, especially if personnel are not fully familiar with operating them under those conditions. Propellers on outboard motors can become entangled in branches, vines or other debris or even in fences in higher floodwaters, disabling the boat’s power and creating the need for additional rescues.
If a decision is made to attempt to access victims directly from a piece of apparatus, select a larger piece of apparatus with maximum ground clearances for this operation. Lower vehicle exhausts can become clogged with water, disabling the vehicle. Large dump trucks or front-end loaders with vertical exhausts may be good resources for this. Some communities even maintain ex-military vehicles for flood duty.
Remember that portions of the roadway may be washed out, so if it’s at all possible, check the integrity of the ground before moving a large rescue vehicle into the area. Rescuers must also constantly check footing in front of them using a pole or other device.
Finally, safety officers should be positioned upstream to monitor currents and floating debris that could pose a hazard to the rescuers.
Critical Rescues
In more critical rescue situations, victims may be floating rapidly down fast-moving streams. Firefighters should not attempt to enter the water to try to catch these victims. Instead, extend a pike pole or other device for the victims to grab. Ropes, air-charged hoselines or other equipment can be extended across the stream to “catch” the victim. Inflatable devices can be dropped from overhead bridges or extended via ladders or poles. If a victim is trapped underwater in a drain or culvert, firefighters may need to divert water flow from upstream or possibly draft to lower the water level, discharging the water to a safe location.
Conclusion
Water rescues are one of the more challenging emergency calls we’ll get. Departments that have not prepared or preplanned for these incidents may be quite surprised by the enormity of the situation—and the results can be deadly. On the other hand, departments that have planned and trained properly for these incidents could find themselves in a starring role in a TV documentary!
Greg Jakubowski is a fire protection engineer and certified safety professional with 30 years of fire-service experience. He is a Pennsylvania State Fire Instructor, serves as the chief with the Lingohocken Fire Company in Bucks County, Pa., and is a member of the IAFC. Greg is also a principal in Fire Planning Associates, a company dedicated to helping fire departments, municipalities and businesses with pre-emergency training.
FireRescue Magazine
April showers may bring beautiful May flowers, but they can also create treacherous creek and river conditions, along with flash floods that generate emergency calls. These calls can range from nothing more than someone stuck in a vehicle that has become surrounded by relatively calm water to multiple people who have driven their vehicles into a flash-flooded area and are now unable to fight the fast-moving current to escape. What’s worse, the call could be for someone who has been swept downstream by a creek, wash or river, making it harder to establish a single location to prepare for the rescue.
The May issue of FireRescue magazine will include the following article about the dangers associated with swiftwater rescues. With the Red River in North Dakota rising to record levels and severe storms threatening to bring significant flooding to many other parts of the country, now is a great time to brush up on strategies for responding to swiftwater calls.
And it’s not only heavy rains and severe storms that create these dangerous situations. In December 2008 a major water main break created instant chaos in Montgomery County, Md. (For a detailed account of the rescue, see the sidebar “A Success Story” in the May issue of FireRescue) What does this mean for you? Any fire department in the country could be called to a water rescue—so be prepared!
This article will focus on general first responder water rescue and flash flooding. It will not delve into ocean rescue situations, which can require somewhat different skills and equipment.
The Dangers of Water
Moving water is a very powerful force that is easily underestimated, even by firefighters. Water weighs 62.4 lbs. per cubic foot and typically flows downstream at 6 to 12 mph. Six inches of water can sweep a person off their feet; only 1–2 feet of water can cost lives; and 2 feet of water can float a car.
When a vehicle stalls in the water, the water’s momentum is transferred to the car. For each foot the water rises, 500 lbs. of lateral force is applied to the car. Now factor in buoyancy. According to the U.S. National Weather Service Office of Climate, Water and Weather Services, for each foot the water rises up the side of the car, the car displaces 1,500 lbs. of water. In effect, the car weighs 1,500 lbs. less for each foot the water rises. The results can be disastrous.
According to the National Weather Service, in June 1990, in Shadyside, Ohio, 4 inches of rain in less than 2 hours produced a 30-foot-high wall of water that ultimately killed 26 people and caused $6–8 million in damage. In June 2001, flooding from Tropical Storm Allison killed 22 people and caused more than $5 billion in damage in the Houston area.
Other dangers: In many cases, flood waters are extremely cold, even when the weather is warm or hot.
Swift-moving flood waters can be deceiving, with water on the top moving slowly and rapid undercurrents that can trip up and carry away unprepared rescuers. These same undercurrents can wash away roadways, providing hidden traps for personnel and apparatus attempting to enter the area for rescues.
Swiftwater incidents may seem relatively routine for some departments, especially those located on or near a body of water. However, for many other departments, these situations can prove quite challenging. Every fire department must have procedures in place to provide for the prompt rescue of individuals trapped in high-water or fast-moving water situations, all while ensuring safety for the rescuers.
Do Your Homework
You must have the proper procedures, training and equipment to handle any type of swiftwater incident.
Consider all your potential resources, including boats, special rescue equipment (ropes, rope guns, ladders, survival suits, etc.), dive/water rescue units, EMS units and helicopters that have rescue capabilities. Get familiar with specialized resources, their capabilities and availability. Even if divers/boats are available, you need to know if they can operate in swiftwater situations or if their use is limited to calm water conditions. Additionally, can aerial apparatus operate at low or declined angles, and how much weight can they support at that angle?
Rescue personnel should wear Type I PDFs, which are designed to keep personnel afloat, even when unconscious, in rough water situations. You must understand the limitations of other types of PFDs.
Research the types of personal floatation devices (PFDs) and cold-water suits you need prior to purchase. Cold water suits should be worn by personnel operating in the water. They keep personnel afloat and protect against hypothermia.
Are your firefighters prepared to operate with PFDs and not their turnout gear near water? If not, you’ll need to start training on how to operate under these conditions.
Tip: You can store water rescue gear in bags that are kept at the station and placed on the apparatus when flooding conditions threaten.
Size-Up
Like all calls, incident size-up begins at dispatch. All responding personnel must monitor radio communications and weather conditions to get a solid understanding of the situation and the risks involved in order to prevent any additional individuals from becoming entrapped in the high or fast-moving water.
It’s important to triage requests for assistance during flooding conditions. There may be people “stuck” in disabled vehicles in ankle-deep water that’s barely moving, as well as people who are trapped in a fast current and moving swiftly downstream. Clearly, the latter case deserves priority—and some quick thinking.
The planning officer should track changing weather conditions to determine if the situation will improve or deteriorate. If the victim is in a stable position and uninjured, and the water level is projected to recede, it might be simpler and safer to have them stay in place until the flooding subsides, all while maintaining contact and providing moral support. If the victim’s condition is unstable and/or the water is projected to rise, the need for rescue may be imminent. Note: If the victim shows signs of hypothermia or another medical condition, make the rescue as soon as possible.
Another factor to consider: unit placement. Units should be positioned as close to the scene as possible without actually entering the water or putting themselves at risk. Determine if rescuers can be positioned on both banks on either side of the incident as well as downstream—an ideal position. Note: Don’t forget to consider mutual aid or additional assistance.
Finally, the incident commander will need to make a decision as to which method of extricating is best for the victim, while minimizing risk to the rescuers? It may be via helicopter or by personnel in a boat. Putting rescuers in the water should be the last option considered.
Water-Rescue Principles
There are four principles of water rescue: reach, throw, row and go—and they usually occur in that order.
Use long, handled tools, such as pike poles, to try to reach victims. Ensure you have ropes with life rings or other floating devices that can be thrown to victims. Even air-filled objects, such as footballs or soccer balls, can be thrown to victims so they have something to hold onto while in the water. You’ll also want rope available to tie-off any rescuer entering the water so they can be retrieved quickly. Note: Rescuers should carry a knife to be able to quickly cut themselves free of any entanglement that threatens them.
You can push, motor or row boats to victims if necessary, but rescuers entering the water, even in boats, should only go when properly protected with head and foot protection and flotation gear. If survival or flotation suits are available, wear them! Also ensure that your boots are tied tightly to reduce the amount of water, hydrocarbons, chemicals or other hazards that can get in.
Boats can be extremely dangerous in fast water rescues, especially if personnel are not fully familiar with operating them under those conditions. Propellers on outboard motors can become entangled in branches, vines or other debris or even in fences in higher floodwaters, disabling the boat’s power and creating the need for additional rescues.
If a decision is made to attempt to access victims directly from a piece of apparatus, select a larger piece of apparatus with maximum ground clearances for this operation. Lower vehicle exhausts can become clogged with water, disabling the vehicle. Large dump trucks or front-end loaders with vertical exhausts may be good resources for this. Some communities even maintain ex-military vehicles for flood duty.
Remember that portions of the roadway may be washed out, so if it’s at all possible, check the integrity of the ground before moving a large rescue vehicle into the area. Rescuers must also constantly check footing in front of them using a pole or other device.
Finally, safety officers should be positioned upstream to monitor currents and floating debris that could pose a hazard to the rescuers.
Critical Rescues
In more critical rescue situations, victims may be floating rapidly down fast-moving streams. Firefighters should not attempt to enter the water to try to catch these victims. Instead, extend a pike pole or other device for the victims to grab. Ropes, air-charged hoselines or other equipment can be extended across the stream to “catch” the victim. Inflatable devices can be dropped from overhead bridges or extended via ladders or poles. If a victim is trapped underwater in a drain or culvert, firefighters may need to divert water flow from upstream or possibly draft to lower the water level, discharging the water to a safe location.
Conclusion
Water rescues are one of the more challenging emergency calls we’ll get. Departments that have not prepared or preplanned for these incidents may be quite surprised by the enormity of the situation—and the results can be deadly. On the other hand, departments that have planned and trained properly for these incidents could find themselves in a starring role in a TV documentary!
Greg Jakubowski is a fire protection engineer and certified safety professional with 30 years of fire-service experience. He is a Pennsylvania State Fire Instructor, serves as the chief with the Lingohocken Fire Company in Bucks County, Pa., and is a member of the IAFC. Greg is also a principal in Fire Planning Associates, a company dedicated to helping fire departments, municipalities and businesses with pre-emergency training.
Add a Comment
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Comment by Greg Jakubowski on July 2, 2009 at 9:18pm
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I had another swift water event 2 weeks ago. Small creek became a raging river after 4-5" of rain in an hour and a half. The gauge downstream in the main stem went from 4' to 12' deep in that period. Had 100 people trapped at a wedding reception at a FOP lodge. A pickup trying to leave was almost washed away. Simple fix - called the lodge, told them by order of the fire chief they had to keep the party going and not let anyone leave for an hour or 2 until the water receded (we were watching weather radar and rain was abating). They announced that by order of the fire chief the party would continue, and a great cheer went up from the crowd! Accomplished with 2 firefighters - no helos, no boats or rescue swimmers, no putting anyone at risk, and we didn't have to entertain the crowd at our fire station until the water went down!
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Ben, thanks for the input on both the rescue teams and the terminology. I won't get into the debate on types of PFDs as I have heard several different viewpoints on that.
Yes, Lambertville is a resource. There are a number of in-county resources also. Point Pleasant Fire Co. is trained both as dive rescuers and swift water, as is the Lower Southampton Fire Co. (relatively new unit). Most of the companies along the Delaware River (on both the PA and NJ sides) have some type of marine unit, at least trained for surface rescue but not always in-water swiftwater resources. There are several air boats/hovercraft available. Years ago, during a hurricane/tropical storm, our co. had a school bus trapped in a flash flood that actually took a road bridge out over a very small, peaceful stream. They utilized a large front end loader to remove the occupants. We have 4 working quarries in our coverage area and have access to that heavy equipment relatively quickly, when we need it.
I served in Montgomery County before moving to Bucks about 8 years ago. We had a horrific swiftwater/fire incident at the Village Green Apts. in Upper Moreland Township. During a massive flash flood, rescuers in boats were in this complex rescuing victims from 2nd floor windows. A dryer in one of the buildings was ripped off its gas piping, resulting in an explosion and fire raging through the buildings. 6 occupants died, and firefighters were trying to swim 5" lines through the flood waters into the buildings (I know, wasn't my decision!). Boats had propellers caught on the tops of 5-6' high chain link fences, etc.
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Comment by Ben Waller on March 31, 2009 at 8:20pm
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Greg,
One other thing - you might want to refer to the specialty as "swiftwater rescuers" rather than as "divers", even if the divers are trained in swiftwater rescue. There are a lot of fire-rescue folks that don't understand the difference. An analagy would be places like my agency where the paramedics are all firefighters, but referring to "paramedics" fighting structural fires. It's technially accurate for some places, but not for the vast majority of the audience.
Just m $0.02.
Ben
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Greg,
Here's a link to the Pennsylvania double LODD from 4-9-01 on Slippery Rock Creek.
http://www.firehouse.com/lodd/2001/pa_apr9.html
I see that you're from Buck's County. You have a pretty good swiftwater rescue source locally with some of the water rescue folks from the Lambertville-New Hope Ambulance and Rescue Squad. http://www.lnhars.com/
Good luck with the article.
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Ben,
Thanks for your comments, 'preciate the info for a basic engine/truck guy that I am.
Related to divers - I think this point covered it? Even if divers/boats are available, you need to know if they can operate in swiftwater situations or if their use is limited to calm water conditions.
In our area, the dive teams are also trained/equipped for swiftwater situations.
Greg
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Greg,
Further clarification on divers in swiftwater - a few years ago, two divers died while attempting to recover a kayaker's body in a flooded creek. Their gear wasn't appropriate for the current, and all three bodies were recovered later when the water receded, without further incident.
Dive gear is way to heavy and bulky for swiftwater surface rescue work.
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Greg,
Divers are not generally useful for swiftwater rescue. Their specialty is underwater work.
Everyone that does swiftwater rescue needs to be trained for it.
Divers doing swiftwater rescue is similar to having cave rescuers doing trench rescue because they both occur below grade.
Likewise, Type I PFDs are not the best choice for swiftwater work. Type I PFDs are designed for offshore use, not for inland water use such as swiftwater and floods. They are simply too bulky to be practical, and in fact, the extra bulk may actually increase the risk of entanglement in flooding around manmade structures and swiftwater work around undercuts or other entrapment problems might exist.
A Type III PFD or a Type V desigend for swiftwater work is much better suited to the task than a Type I. Most rafting companies use Type III or Type V swiftwater PFDs, and swiftwater teams that do water entry work almost exclusively use swiftater rescue Type Vs with quick-release tether belts.
Interestingly, one of the best swiftwater rescue PFDs - the Force 6 - does not carry a US Coast Guard approval rating. The Coast Guard rates PFDs based on potential victim survival. Rescue swimmers need PFDs that are designed for rescue, not for victims. The Force 6 is specifically designed for swiftwater rescue swimmers. The Coast Guard has no PFD requirements for swiftwater rescue swimmers, because the regulations are intended for recreational and work boating.
Feel free to contact me if you have questions regarding my points.
Ben
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